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The question Peter Coates examines in his book, "Nature: Western Attitudes Since Ancient Times, can be summarized as, "Why do we as Westerners have the attitudes about nature that we have, and historically, how have these attitudes affected our actions with regards to the natural world?" This is truly a fascinating question to investigate, and furthermore, it is essential to explore if one is interested in our environmental situation in the present day. Coates begins his investigation with Greek and Roman attitudes. From this starting point he writes further chapters which cover Western history all the way up until the Americas. He then probes into more contemporary philosophical and social issues, concluding with a look into the future of the natural world and a diagnosis of our present day worldview about nature. Coates writes in an academic yet highly lucid style, organizing his chapters around descriptions of human attitudes and behaviors, technological changes, and information about the environment of the area and time being studied.
Coates begins the book by showing us how convoluted our definitions of nature are. He reminds us, for example, of C.S.Lewis’s idea that given our same common definitions of nature, ants would see their "anthills" as artificial and brick walls as "natural." In looking at the various ways we define nature Coates asks if nature is a source of external authority, as in the idea that "nature knows best," or is it simply physical space unmodified by humans? For a grander definition, is nature the collective phenomena of the world or universe? Is it the essence which informs the workings of the world? Finally, is that which we call "nature" inherently opposite to that which we call "culture?" By asking question such as these, Coates gives his readers a clear reality check about our underdeveloped and problematic conceptions of nature. He makes this point especially clear when he reminds us that the German Nazis claimed that war was a society’s "natural" state, and that Pat Buchanan posited that AIDS was "nature’s retribution" against "unnatural practices."
The first historical groups investigated are the ancient Greeks and Romans. Coates informs us that "ecophilosophers" have traced Western anthropocentric hegemonic ideas of nature back to Socrates and his position that philosophy should focus on humans. He then gives us several examples of the anthropocentric lens through which the Greeks and Romans perceived nature. For instance, animals were judged by the same moral standards as humans, and furthermore, they were assigned human characteristics (i.e. Aesop’s fables). Here we also see poetry describing nature as reflective of human moods and as metaphors for human religious ideals. An interesting comparison that I recalled while reading this was that of the use of nature in the poetry Chinese T’ang Dynasty poets. While they wrote prolifically about nature, the natural images used do not convey any of that anthropocentric symbolisms which are so common in Western works; for the T’ang poets, nature simply was what it was.
Coates focuses much attention throughout the book on human attitudes towards animals. For the Greeks we learn that Aristotle argued that all lives have souls, but that humans are more soulful because they possess rational intellects. Therefore, he stated, animals are like human slaves. They are living pieces of property subordinate to humans. This virtual consecration of the intellect points to the dualistic paradigm regarding body and mind so indicative of Western attitudes. As Plato had seen the world as a "tomb," Aristotle negated the value of the physical and privileged the mental and spiritual. Thus animals, with their seeming lack of rational intellects, were less soulful and less important. Other philosophers at the time were not as comfortable with this dualistic separation of body and soul, arguing that since the body is part of God’s creation, the physical is sacred. Questioning our worldview with regards to hierarchical organizations of physical, mental, and spiritual is always an interesting topic to throw into the ring of classroom discussions.
The Romans demonstrated paradoxical relationships with animals. They relished hunts staged in the Colosseum called venationes, enjoying the spectacle of thousands of animals killed in single days, while simultaneously showing great love for their pets at home. This historical example offers teachers an excellent inroad into discussions about how humans can be conditioned to see contradictions as normal. How is it, for example, that we may spend thousands of dollars attempting to heal a sick pet, but think little or nothing of supporting the slaughtering of animals by eating meat? Or, how is that we as teachers may pay money to watch a boxing event, but would quickly suspend two students engaged in "boxing" at school? This discussion is especially important when examining environmental issues. How is that we can be aware of the environmental crisis but still see no problem in taking unnecessary pleasure drives and thus worsening the crisis with our pollution? Furthermore, how have we been conditioned into consumerism by our society‘s multi-billion dollar advertising industry, yet also told in many of those same ads to live the "simple" and "natural" life; our news shows tell us of pollution and overstuffed landfills, while their advertisers seduce into my buying more "stuff."
In his chapters on Europe, Coates takes a closer looks at historical figures such as Saint Francis, Descartes, Bacon, Kepler and Newton. He frequently returns to the argument that our exploitative attitude towards nature comes from Christianity. Many have suggested, for example, that it was Christian monthotheism’s eradication of Paganism, and thus nature sprits and sacred groves, which made exploitation of nature that much easier. Another common reference is that of the Biblical injunction in Genesis for humans to have "dominion" over the earth. However, Coates always reminds the reader to critically examine whether prominent instruments of culture, such as the Bible, cause people to have certain attitudes and behaviors, or, if they simply reflect and justify attitudes and behaviors already present in a culture. This is a fascinating, complex, and necessary question to explore.
Coates presents the argument that the rational empiricism which developed in Europe in the Middle Ages and the Scientific Revolution contributed to the despiritualization of nature. With empiricism came the idea of "Supernature," a force which is immutable and which transcends material reality. With nature being simply "material," finite and observable, God is within Supernature, and thus separate from creation. As such, humans could seek rational explanations about creation without threatening beliefs about God. God was the primary cause, but secondary causes could be legitimately sought within his creation, and the material itself could be exploited. Furthermore, the mechanistic attitude toward nature, seeing God as the "clock maker" who set his creation (wound the clock) and departed the scene, decentralized God, and shaped a mechanistic worldview which had people experiencing reality as being composed of independent discrete "parts;" ideas of interconnection and/or the world as a living organism were negated.
Coates’s final chapter, "The Future of Nature" offers insightful and provocative concluding thoughts and information. He points out that due to global warming, there is no longer a speck of untouched "wilderness" on the earth; it is all affected by the consequences of human actions. He also reminds us of the fact that it has been a long time, if ever, since nature has been autonomous From early selecting of grains for crop planting to animal domestication for farming, humans have long been manipulating nature in the same way that scientist today are working on square tomatoes and "test-tube babies." Looking at the present day, he offers the position of some that contemporary biotechnology and industrial genetics are simply the logical continuation on Francis Bacon’s promulgation that nature is infinitely malleable matter.
While this book would be appropriate for a seminar of older and advanced students, it will probably best serve teachers in their own preparation. Organizing a history unit or class around attitudes towards nature will add focus and continuity to classes; this book is an excellent resource for such pursuits.
Sam Shapiro
Humanities/English
The Athenian School
Danville, California